The theory of evolution and its challenges in the light of science and faith

Evolution is a gradual change that occurs in organisms over a long period of time resulting in changes in their physical and behavioural characteristics.

Evidence and Challenges to the Theory of Evolution

Overview of the Theory of Evolution:

• The theory posits that all organisms share a common origin and evolve slowly over time due to environmental and genetic factors.
• Charles Darwin established the foundation in the 19th century, proposing evolution occurs through natural selection and survival of the fittest.
• Natural selection: Organisms with traits better suited to their environment survive and reproduce, while less adapted organisms die or reproduce less effectively.
• Survival of the fittest: Organisms with advantageous traits pass those traits to offspring, shaping species over time.

Darwin’s tree of Life:

• Life as a large tree representing the history of organisms and their branching over time.
• The trunk symbolizes the first organism, the common ancestor from which all living things descend, per the theory.
• Branches represent species diverging from this ancestor, gradually adapting to their environments to form new species.
• Tips of branches represent current organisms or new species resulting from these changes.
• This tree illustrates that all organisms are related, changing slowly through descent with modification, where small genetic trait changes accumulate across generations.

Genetic Variation:

• Individuals within a species vary in physical attributes (e.g., size, colour, strength) due to differences in genes, the units carrying instructions for building organisms.
• Darwin did not fully recognize this due to the undeveloped state of genetics in his time.
• Favourable traits (e.g., greater speed, better food-finding ability) enhance survival and reproduction, allowing genes to be passed to offspring.
• Less adapted individuals with unfavourable traits die early or reproduce less, reducing the transmission of their genes.
• Over time, favourable traits dominate, gradually altering species characteristics through accumulated changes.

Progressive Evolution:

• Assumes intermediate species (transitional forms) link old and new species, showing traits shared by ancestors and descendants, indicating evolutionary stages.

Scope of Evolution:

• The theory does not explain the origin of life, focusing instead on changes after life’s emergence.
• Darwin avoided public discussion of life’s origin, as it was beyond his theory’s scope, but privately suggested natural causes like chemical reactions in primitive environments without external intervention.
• This suggestion lacked strong scientific evidence in Darwin’s time and remains controversial today.

Darwin’s Doubts About His Theory:

• Darwin acknowledged potential weaknesses, indicating the theory was not complete or definitive.

Specific doubts include:

• Complexity of the eye: Darwin questioned how a complex organ like the eye, with its precise structure, could evolve through gradual natural selection, describing the challenge as seemingly absurd due to the need for multiple parts to function together.
• Absence of transitional forms in the fossil record: Darwin noted the lack of fossils showing intermediate forms between old and new species, which would support gradual evolution.
• Lack of transitional forms in geological formations: Even in well-preserved layers, clear evidence of transitional forms connecting species was missing, raising questions about evolutionary processes.
• Sudden appearance of life (Cambrian Explosion): The abrupt emergence of diverse, complex species in the Cambrian strata challenged the idea of slow, gradual evolution.

Is Evolution Real?

Two main types of evolution in scientific and philosophical debates:

• Microevolution: Small changes within a species (e.g., variations in butterfly colours or bird beak sizes), observable but not transforming a species into a different one.
• Macroevolution (Speciation): Large-scale changes leading to new species, considered impossible by critics due to lack of direct observation, conclusive fossil evidence, or experimental proof.

Assumptions of Evolution Contradicting Logic and Science:

• Nothing created everything: The notion that the universe’s complexity arose from nothing without a cause or source.
• Life from non-life: The assumption that non-living matter transformed into living organisms without external intervention.
• Order from chaos: Evolution suggests complex organisms emerged from a random, chaotic state.
• Natural Laws Challenging Evolutionary Assumptions:

Biogenesis Law:

• [i]Louis Pasteur’s experiments (e.g., sterile broth) proved life only comes from pre-existing life, contradicting abiogenesis (the hypothesis that life arose from non-living matter billions of years ago).
• No empirical evidence supports abiogenesis.
• Cell complexity (e.g., DNA, proteins) exhibits irreducible complexity, requiring all parts to function simultaneously, making random formation implausible.

First Law of Thermodynamics:

• Energy is neither created nor destroyed, only transformed.
• The Big Bang theory’s assumption of matter and energy appearing from nothing contradicts this law.

Second Law of Thermodynamics:

• Systems tend toward chaos and decay (entropy).
• Evolution’s claim of increasing complexity from simple to complex states contradicts this tendency without intelligent external guidance.

What is a Cell? (Simplified):

• A cell is a highly complex unit forming the basis of all living organisms, functioning as a precision machine with integrated systems unlikely to form by chance.
• Cell membrane: A flexible wall precisely controlling substance entry and exit, ensuring cell survival and function.
• DNA: A complex instruction manual carrying genetic information for cell function and organism building.
• Proteins: Molecules performing vital tasks (e.g., transporting substances, building tissues), requiring precise order unlikely to form by chance.
• Ribosomes: Small cellular machines producing proteins, requiring complex organization to function efficiently.
• Energy (ATP): Produced via a complex mechanism resembling a cellular power station.

Mathematical Impossibility of Life from Non-Life:

• Proteins consist of precisely arranged amino acids; the probability of a single 100-amino-acid protein forming by chance is 1 in 10^164, far exceeding the universe’s estimated 10^80 atoms.
• A cell requires hundreds of proteins working harmoniously, making random formation billions of times less likely.
• Chicken-and-egg problem: DNA requires proteins to function, and proteins need DNA to form, necessitating simultaneous existence, pointing to intelligent design.
• RNA World Hypothesis: Proposes RNA as life’s origin but fails due to RNA’s complexity and need for enzymes, returning to the same issue.
• [ii]The smallest genome (e.g., Carsonella ruddii, with 182 genes) has a near-impossible probability of random formation due to gene arrangement complexity.

Alternative Explanation for origin of life: Panspermia:

• Suggests life arrived on Earth via microorganisms or seeds carried by comets or meteorites.

Historical context:

• 5th century BC: Philosopher Anaxagoras proposed life from alien seeds.
• 1908: Svante Arrhenius coined “panspermia.”
• 20th century: Scientists Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe supported the idea.

Problems:

• No direct scientific evidence for life transfer from space to Earth.
• Does not resolve the origin of life, merely relocating the question without explaining how life originated.

challenges to the Theory of Evolution:

• Absence of transitional fossils: The fossil record shows sudden appearances of complex species, particularly in the Cambrian Explosion, without clear intermediate forms or ancestors, challenging gradual evolution. Lack of Transitional Fossils
• Fossil Stasis: Species like the coelacanth remain unchanged for millions of years, challenging the notion of continuous, gradual evolution.
• Irreducible Complexity: Biological systems, such as the bacterial flagellum, require all parts to function together, making gradual evolution unlikely since individual parts would not be functional on their own.
• DNA Complexity: DNA contains intricate information resembling advanced computer software, requiring immense precision to encode, rendering random formation implausible.
• Thermodynamic Laws: First Law of Thermodynamics: Contradicts the idea that the universe emerged from nothing, as energy and matter cannot appear without a source.
• Second Law of Thermodynamics: Opposes the notion of increasing complexity over time, as systems tend toward chaos (entropy) without intelligent intervention.
• Cambrian Explosion: Complex life forms appeared suddenly in the Cambrian strata without obvious ancestors, contradicting the concept of slow, gradual evolution.
• Complex Organs: Organs like the eye and heart require all parts to function, making gradual evolution unlikely, as partial components would not be functional.
• Macroevolution: Never observed; examples like changes in Galapagos bird beaks represent microevolution within a species, not evidence of one species transforming into another.
• Genetic Mutations: Often harmful or neutral (e.g., sickle cell anaemia), mutations do not add new information to the genome.
• Genetic Entropy: Accumulation of mutations degrades genetic information over time, rather than improving it.
• Lack of Information-Adding Mechanisms: Mutations rearrange existing information but do not provide enough new information to produce new species.
• Lack of Observed Speciation: Transformation of one species into a distinctly different species has not been observed in experiments or nature.
• Consciousness: Cannot be fully explained by purely physical processes, as it transcends the brain’s physical properties.
• Objective Morality: Evolution cannot account for a universal sense of right and wrong, which points to a moral legislator.
• Fine-Tuning of the Universe: The universe appears precisely tuned to support life, suggesting intelligent design rather than chance.
• [iii]Origin of Reproduction: The simultaneous evolution of compatible male and female reproductive systems is unlikely due to the complex harmony required, which conflicts with survival of the fittest without intelligent guidance.

Christian View of the Origin of Life:

• The Bible presents God as the Creator who designed the universe and life with clear intention and purpose.
• Genesis 1:1 (NIV): "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth," emphasizing God as the first cause of existence.
• John 1:3 (NIV): "Through him all things were made; without him nothing was made that has been made," highlighting Christ as the source of all creation.
• This view opposes random origins, asserting that the universes and life’s complexity and order point to an intelligent, omnipotent Creator.

Conclusion:

• The theory of evolution, in its traditional form, faces significant scientific and philosophical challenges, particularly in explaining life’s origin and the irreducible complexity of biological systems.
• Biblically supported intelligent design provides a more coherent explanation for the universes and life’s remarkable order and complexity compared to the unsupported assumptions of abiogenesis and macroevolution.

[i]https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Boundless)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology/1.01%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology/1.1C%3A_Pasteur_and_Spontaneous_Generation

[ii] https://www.nature.com/news/2006/061009/full/news061009-10.html

[iii] https://reasons.org/explore/blogs/voices/sexual-reproduction-challenges-evolution-affirms-creation