The Synod of Whitby (664 AD)

The Synod of Whitby (664 AD)

• The Synod of Whitby was a pivotal ecclesiastical council summoned by King Oswy of Northumbria.
• It aimed to resolve growing friction between two distinct traditions of Christianity in England.
• One tradition was the Celtic tradition, rooted in the missionary work of Iona and Lindisfarne.
• The other was the Roman tradition, established by missionaries such as Augustine of Canterbury.
• The controversy centred on divergent customs, most notably the calculation of the date of Easter and the style of the monastic tonsure (haircut).
• The synod took place at the monastery of Abbess Hilda, a supporter of the Celtic customs.
• The debate pitted Bishop Colman, representing the Celtic tradition of St Columba, against Wilfrid of York, an articulate advocate for the Roman cause.
• Wilfrid argued that the Roman custom was universal and traced back to the apostles Peter and Paul.
• He said the Celtic customs were isolated to a corner of the world.
• The decisive moment occurred when Wilfrid quoted Jesus’ words to Peter: "I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven."
• King Oswy, wishing to avoid being turned away at the gates of heaven by the doorkeeper, decided to uphold the Roman practice.
• This decision marked a turning point in English history.
• It effectively ended the isolation of the British church.
• By rejecting the insular Celtic customs in favour of Rome, the English kingdoms were brought into conformity with continental Catholicism.
• This unification paved the way for Theodore of Tarsus, the Archbishop of Canterbury (who arrived in 668), to reorganise the English church.
• He created a cohesive diocesan structure that united the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms under one ecclesiastical umbrella.

Differences Between Celtic Monasticism and Roman (Benedictine) Style

• Celtic monasticism differed from the Roman style in several fundamental ways, ranging from organisational structure and movement to liturgical customs and disciplinary practices.
• Organizational Structure: The Abbot vs. The Bishop
• In the Celtic style, the church was organised around the monastery rather than the diocese or congregation.
• Ireland had never been part of the Roman Empire and lacked its urban administrative framework, so the church adapted to the local clan system.
• The abbot was the supreme leader and administrator, possessing more power than the bishop.
• Bishops were often subordinate to the abbots and retained primarily for their sacramental function of ordination.
• In Northern Celtic regions, the Abbot of Iona held more authority than the Pope.
• In the Roman style, the church followed a diocesan structure based on the civil administration of the Roman Empire, centred in cities.
• Authority lay with the bishop, who supervised the clergy and to whom monks were technically subject.
• Stability vs. Wandering (Peregrinatio)
• Celtic monks practised peregrinatio—a "wandering for the love of God" or self-imposed exile.
• They placed little value on staying in one location, viewing pilgrimage and missionary travel as a penitential duty.
• This restlessness led them to evangelise widely across Scotland, England, and the European continent.
• The Roman Benedictine Rule emphasised stability (stabilitas).
• Monks were expected to remain in the specific monastery where they took their vows, living a life of order and moderation within a self-contained community.
• Discipline and Penance
• Celtic monasticism developed the practice of private confession to a priest, accompanied by "penitentials"—books prescribing specific penances (such as fasting or reciting Psalms) for specific sins.
• This replaced the older Roman practice of public collective discipline, which had largely fallen into disuse.
• Irish monasticism was characterised by extreme ascetic rigour and austerity, often influenced by the early Egyptian desert fathers.
• The Roman Benedictine Rule was noted for its moderation and administrative balance, avoiding the extreme physical deprivations of the earlier hermits.
• Liturgical and Cultural Differences
• Deep friction existed between the traditions regarding external customs, which came to a head at the Synod of Whitby in 664.
• Date of Easter: The Celtic Church calculated the date of Easter differently than Rome.
• They celebrated it on the Sunday between the 14th and 20th days of the moon, whereas Rome observed it between the 15th and 21st days.
• This led to situations where one part of a royal household was celebrating Easter while the other was still fasting for Lent.
• Tonsure: Monks wore their hair differently.
• The Roman tonsure was a fully circular "crown" (shaving the top of the head).
• The Celtic tonsure involved shaving the front of the head from ear to ear.
• Baptism: The rituals of baptism differed between the two traditions, with Augustine of Canterbury demanding the Celts conform to the Roman rite.
• Scholarship and Art
• While Roman monasteries helped preserve classical Latin literature, Celtic monasteries developed a unique and high level of cultural attainment.
• They excelled in the production of illuminated manuscripts.
• Masterpieces like the Book of Kells and the Lindisfarne Gospels exemplify the distinct, intricate artistic style of the Celtic monks.
• Eventually, through the Synod of Whitby (664) and the work of organisers like Theodore of Tarsus, the Roman style prevailed in England.
• It unified the church under the diocesan structure and Benedictine Rule.
• However, elements of Celtic practice, such as private confession, were absorbed into the Western Church.

Influence of the Celtic Clan System on Church Leadership

• The Celtic clan system strongly influenced church leadership, especially in Ireland and related areas.
• Monasteries adapted to the local tribal and clan structure due to the absence of Roman urban administration.
• Authority often followed familial or clan lines, with abbots sometimes succeeding within family lineages (hereditary abbacy or coarb system).
• The abbot held supreme power, even over bishops, who were primarily sacramental figures.
• This mirrored clan hierarchies where leaders came from noble or founding families.
• At places like Iona, the abbot (successor of Columba) was the central ruler, reflecting clan-based loyalty and inheritance.

Penitentials and Their Change to Christian Discipline

• Penitentials were books used in Celtic monasticism that prescribed specific penances for specific sins.
• They accompanied private confession to a priest.
• This system replaced the older Roman practice of public collective discipline and penance.
• Private confession and tailored penances (e.g., fasting, reciting Psalms) became standard.
• This approach emphasised personal accountability and was later adopted more widely in the Western Church.

Why the Monastic Tonsure Was a Heated Debate Topic

• The monastic tonsure (hairstyle) symbolised allegiance to a particular tradition.
• The Roman tonsure was a circular "crown" shaved on top of the head.
• The Celtic tonsure shaved the front of the head from ear to ear (leaving hair at the back).
• It became a visible sign of difference between Celtic and Roman practices.
• At the Synod of Whitby, it represented deeper issues of authority and unity.
• Choosing one over the other signalled which tradition (Celtic/Iona or Roman) held sway.

Endnotes

1. Nick R. Needham, 2,000 Years of Christ’s Power Vol 1: The Age of the Early Church Fathers, pp. 318, 328–329, 410.
2. Everett Ferguson, Church History, Volume One: From Christ to Pre-Reformation, p. 330.
3. Tim Dowley, A Lion Handbook: The History of Christianity, p. 232.
4. Ferguson, p. 331; Dowley, p. 232; Needham, p. 320.
5. Bruce Shelley, Church History in Plain Language, p. 153.